Teachers, facilitators, and
instructors must understand their students in order to affect learning.
Understanding who learners are and how they develop cognitively, emotionally,
and intellectually will help instructors create learning opportunities which
will enhance student knowledge. The same is true when it is the teacher who
becomes the student. Whether the readers of this article are teachers,
administrators, or professional development providers, adults must understand how
adults learn, and teachers should allow themselves the opportunity to remember
what it is like to be a learner (Brookfield,
1995).
Understanding theories and models
of adult learning and their practical applications can help instructors become
better students as they pursue learning in order to become better teachers. These
theories and models can answer the questions “How do I learn as an adult?” and
“How can apply this to my own professional development and practices as a
teacher?”
Lieb (1991) states that adults have
different needs as learners than children and teens. Adults have experience to
draw from when learning. They are more focused, self-directed, and autonomous
learners. They need to be respected on more of a peer level than the
student-teacher level they experienced as children. Adults are motivated in
different ways and have different barriers to their motivation. According to
Lieb, adults
choose to learn based on
internal and external factors. Intrinsically, they want to learn for the sake
of learning, to improve themselves, and to serve others. Extrinsically, they
may want to increase their status at work, to please someone in authority, or
to make a better living for their family.
Brookfield (in press), in
his article “Adult Cognition as a
Dimension of Lifelong Learning” discusses distinctions of adult learning. He
believes adults learn in a more “heightened form” than when they were teenagers
(para. 4). One distinction is that adults exhibit “dialectical thinking” (para.
5). This means they are able to look at contradictions and discrepancies as learning
opportunities and use them for professional development. An adolescent may not
see the difference or struggle with it; whereas, it is a part of everyday
thinking for adults. Adults think in more practical, logical terms because they
see the big picture – the context in which thinking is necessary. An adult’s
life experience helps him or her extract subtle cues from information and apply
it in logical ways. Combining this principle with Knowles’ (as cited by Lieb,
1991) theory that adults need to understand
what
they are learning and
why they are
learning should help instructors better meet the learning needs of adults. It
should help teachers understand themselves as learners and feel comfortable
contributing their own experiences to learning opportunities.
Development is the result of
maturation and the influences of society (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner,
2007). Compared to children and teens, adults learn fewer things on a deeper
level rather than more things on surface level, and they construct knowledge
through their actions in life. Knight and Sutton (2004, as cited by Merriam et
al.) suggest that cognitive growth is somewhat dependent on support in terms of
working with familiar resources, being given opportunities to learn, and being
offered opportunities to work with others. The more support, the higher the
adult’s level of performance, the less support, the lower their level of
performance. Seasoned teachers should take the opportunity, even if it is over
coffee in the teacher’s lounge, to offer support to newer teachers who may feel
overwhelmed and unsure of themselves. Learning does not have to take place in
an institution; it can happen during daily activities when teachers are
sensitive to learning, and teaching, moments.
Brookfield (1995)
suggests teachers will make better instructors if they reflect on how they,
themselves, learn. He believes that as teachers become more critically
reflective of how they learn, they will have a better connection with how their
students are learning or need to learn. He encourages teachers, as learners, to
ask questions of themselves, such as, what inspires me to learn, what are my
goals, what struggles do I have when I am trying to learn, and how can I
address those struggles to become a better learner. Teachers who take the time
to reflect on their own learning processes will be much more in tune with their
students.
Both
Western and Non-Western theories and models are discussed here for two reasons.
First, to understand the differences in how students learn in Western ways of
knowing compared to non-Western ways of knowing. Secondly, because teachers may
have colleagues or students who are from different cultures and it will be
important to recognize and respect the reason they approach learning from a
different perspective. The following is a brief summary and should be further
researched by teachers working with colleagues or students from non-Western
countries.
Merriam et al. (2007) suggest four
ways adults learn: Knowles’ model of assumptions, McClusky’s theory of margin, Illeris’
learning process in terms of cognition, emotion and society, and Jarvis’ model that
“all learning begins with the five human sensations” (p. 100). Knowles’ model
of assumptions includes the maturity of the learner, the readiness of the adult
to learn, the self-directed nature of the adult, the internal motivation of the
learner, and the fact that adults need to know why they are learning. Teachers
as learners must analyze their reasons for learning and consider ways to apply
what they learn to their personal development and classroom practices. McClusky’s
theory of margin is also sensitive to the particular circumstances of adult
learners (Merriam et al.). Adults are laden with life situations such as
family, jobs, and societal pressures. For the best learning to happen, McClusky
believes learners should have significant support from family, friends, society
and even finances so a learner’s load is balanced by his support to succeed.
Teachers need the support of their administrators, school board, and
superintendent to seek and participate in further education and professional
development. McClusky’s load and power margin can be contrasted with Illeris’
focus on the learning process (Merriam et al.). McClusky looks at how learning
interacts with the adult learner’s life; however, Illeris considers one’s knowledge
and skills (cognitive), feelings and motivation (emotional), and external
influences of communication, interaction, and cooperation (societal). Teachers
as learners will enhance their cognitive skills, feel inspired by learning, and
be able to communicate better with students, parents and their community. Jarvis’s
model is heavily dependent on learners’ experiences and how they learn from and
through those experiences (Merriam et al.). He theorizes that all learners are
made up of “the mind and the body” (p. 101), and learners interact daily from
their own historical perspective and their life experiences which generate
learning. Teachers as learners and collaborators can influence each other in
positives ways as they learn from each other’s experiences.
Non-Western
ways of knowing are more spiritual than cognitive and emphasize different
aspects of learning than those of Western learning. In America,
students are encouraged to become independent learners and thinkers (Merriam et
al., 2007). Confucianism, Islamic and Hindu education, Maori concepts of
learning, and African indigenous education do not share this characteristic of
learning. Confucianism considers independent learning immature and
self-serving. The indigenous African perspective states that learning happens
through relationships with others. Other cultures believe that learning should
be communal as opposed to independent. Holistic learning is the focus of
several non-Western educational experiences and includes the spirit, mind, body
and emotions of the learner (Merriam et al.; Shah, 2006). Learning is about
becoming a good person who uplifts the community using “story-telling, poetry, ceremonies,
dreams, [and] meditation” (Merriam et al., p. 238). Also, the teacher-student relationship is
revered in ways not experienced in Western societies. It would be quite improper
to have an informal relationship with students or to ask a student a personal
question. In Confucianism, it would be considered a sign of weakness to answer
a personal question (Merriam et al.).
American
teachers need to stay informed about the cultures of the students they teach.
There is a plethora of literature available online which will help teachers
understand what their non-Western students and their families expect from
education. It will allow teachers to address any concerns with their colleagues
and administration. Students will be looking to their teachers for how to treat
these students with respect and dignity. Therefore, teachers need to pursue
learning from a non-Western as well as a Western perspective so they may stay
sensitive to the needs of students from other cultures as well as provide a
model example to all students.
Adult learning is a choice. Adults
are not students who are required to go to school by law. They are in a
different situation than children and teenagers because they have chosen
to continue, or return to, their
education. Adults are more determined and focused on what they want to achieve
(Billington, 1996). Philosophically, adult learners have more purpose and a
mature individuality they bring to the course. They have prior knowledge that
will affect how they learn and what they can contribute to the course. Unlike
their younger counterparts, adults have experience which is reflected in their
learning. Research indicates adults continue growing intellectually and
cognitively as a result of life experiences with problems, family, work, and community
life (Billington).
In his book
Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher,
Brookfield
(1995) provides a personal experience of what can happen when teachers do not
take time to critically reflect on themselves as teachers. As he was doing
research for another book
, he asked
questions of his own students. He states,
Up to that point, I had believed
that the purity of my intentions as a teacher discounted and offset any
unforeseen and unfortunate consequences that my actions might have. But talking
to my own students made me realize that how I taught, why I taught that way,
and how my teaching was perceived were far from being the straight-forward
matter I thought they were. My teaching was not necessarily bad or harmful, but
it was problematic. By that, I mean that it was shot through with
unacknowledged agendas, unpredictable consequences, and unrealized dimensions
(p. xi).
Brookfield (1995) recommends that teachers
not assume that what they are trying to get across to students is being
understood in the way it was intended. He suggests instead that they critically
reflect on their practices and beliefs as teachers. One activity Brookfield recommends is
that teachers write their autobiography as learners. They should reflect on how
they felt as students from elementary school through college and graduate
school, if applicable. Teachers should evaluate the theories and philosophies
their own teachers emulated in their practices. Finally, they should state how
reflecting on themselves as learners gives them insight into how they are as
teachers.
Another aspect of critical
reflection is inviting colleagues to observe teacher practices. Fellow teachers
can offer encouragement for what seems to work, constructive criticism for
improvement, and insight on issues he or she observes that the teacher may not
be aware of (Brookfield,
1995). Brookfield
recommends looking at teacher practices from the students’ perspective, from
the colleague’s perspective and experiences, and from theoretical literature.
Theoretical literature will help teachers “name” their practices (p. 36),
understand student behaviors, and even share with teachers the stories of other
teachers’ struggles. Critical reflection takes time and should be completed
over several weeks so as much can be learned as possible. The benefit is that
it does not cost anything, it can be completed in the normal course of the day
at school and at home, and it has the potential to revolutionize and revitalize
the teacher who chooses to participate.
Another inexpensive practice for
teacher development and improvement is what Brookfield (1995) calls a Good Practices
Audit (GPA). A GPA is a reflection that helps teachers find answers to common
problems in their field by conferring with other teachers. It consists of three
parts. Phase 1 describes the problem. Phase 2 discusses the best and worst
experiences the teacher has had pertaining to the problem. Finally, Phase 3
provides possible solutions to the problem which teachers should consider and
discuss with fellow teachers. The GPA should also reflect on the challenges
teachers may face as they implement those solutions.
Can
becoming a learner inspire teachers to improve their practices? Will
understanding theories and methods of adult learning aid teachers in their own
learning process or persuade school administrators and professional developers
to encourage teachers to be life-long learners? The answers to these questions
lie in the efforts of teachers to pursue knowledge in order to enhance their
teaching, their motivation, their creativity, and their job satisfaction.
"A teacher affects eternity, he can never tell where
his influence stops."
Billington,
D. (1996). Seven characteristics of highly effective adult learning programs
. New Horizons for Learning. Retrieved August
28, 2009 from http://www.newhorizons.org/lifelong/workplace/billington.htm
Brookfield, S. (in
press). Adult cognition as a dimension of lifelong learning. In J. Field &
M. Leicester (Eds.), Lifelong learning: Education across the lifespan
. Philadelphia:
Falmer Press. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://www.open.ac.uk/
Brookfield, S. D. (1995).
Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lieb,
S. (1991). Principles of adult learning.
Vision.
Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults-2.htm
Merriam,
S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007).
Learning in
adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shah,
S. (2006). Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective.
British
Educational Research Journal,
32(3), 363-385.
doi:10.1080/01411920600635403
